Conceptual approaches to the study of the relationship between labor migration and social inequality

The theoretical bases for the study of labor migration are analyzed in the article. At present, labor migration reflects the most important social processes associated primarily with qualitative changes in the economy and in social relations, both in the country that produces migrants, and in the country hosting them.Since migration is a multifaceted social phenomenon and is the result of the intersection of various processes - economic, social, cultural, and geopolitical and others, its study requires a holistic, interdisciplinary approach. This leads to the emergence of numerous competing concepts and hypotheses that explain the migratory processes and behavior of migrants. The article reflects such sociological concepts as the theory of "Pull-Push factors", the concept of "soft" and "hard" factors of labor migration, the theory of social hierarchy and segmentation of the labor market, division of the labor market into "periphery" and "center " by the criteria of the level of wages and employment stability, generation theory, the theory of mobile transition, etc. 

Labor migration is one of the most popular subjects of sociological research.This is due to the fact that since the second half of the 20 th century, migration has been a leading global phenomenon, characteristic of societies at different levels of economic and socio-political development [1, p.77]. Modern society has become mobile and mobile, which was also due to an increase in the flow of movements of the working-age population in the conditions of rapid development of transport and communications [2, p. 56-66]. Within the framework of statistics, labor migration is understood as changing the place of residence in order to find the most suitable place of work [3, p. 168]. Significant interest in this social phenomenon is caused by numerous facts of the vital success of labor migrants, confirming their high adaptability to the conditions of the new country, their effective self- realization, and the increase of their social and economic status.

One of the key problems in the study of this phenomenon is the search for factors that explain the observed patterns of labor movement. So, if migration is a reaction solely to the difference in income and well-being, how to explain the fact that, having become successful, many migrant workers prefer to return to their homeland.In this case, scientists could observe significant migration flows between poor and rich states with little migration in the regions of developed countries. Purely economic models do not withstand a comprehensive statistical test and cannot cover equally important social conditions that affect labor migration. The social context affects both the definition and perception of the concept of "migrant". In this regard, it seems relevant to consider theories of social inequality, developed within sociology, as a methodological basis for investigating the phenomenon of labor migration. They explain the migration processes through the analysis of structural factors associated with unequal distribution and access to socio-economic resources like work, high income, wealth, economic and social stability, education, cultural goods and others.

Since migration is a multifaceted social phenomenon and is the result of the intersection of various processes - economic, social, cultural, geopolitical and others, its study requires a holistic, interdisciplinary approach.This leads to the emergence of numerous competing concepts and hypotheses that explain the migratory processes and behavior of migrants, among them, in their significance and usefulness, sociological and economic theories are singled out.

In sociology, the main approaches to the study of social inequality are the Marxist, Weberian and structural- functionalist (Parsonsian), characterized by both methodological and historical differences [4, p. 19-43.] In addition, the basis of the formation of the first two theories was the experience of the European countries of emerging capitalism (second half of the XIX century), while the structural and functional theory is based on the analysis of the US society in the first half of the twentieth century. These theories did not aim to study labor migration, however, they formed a conceptual and categorical apparatus and a theoretical and methodological foundation for developing theories of social inequality that explain the causes of this phenomenon.

One of the first social researchers working in this direction was the demographer E. Lee, who proposed a gravitational model of labor migrationin 1966. It is more commonly known as the theory of factors of attraction and repulsion ("Pull-Push factors" or "push-pull" factors). Based on the study of the statistics, the scientist identified the factors pushing the labor force out of the country, including the economic crisis and significant differentiation in the income level. Pull factors at the same time are the possibility of higher earnings, political stability, the possibility of achieving a high level of welfare and other conditions that promote not only the levels of financial security, but also the social hierarchy [5, p. 179-200]. In addition, the decision to migrate is made on the basis of intermediate factors that lie between the two sets of factors listed above.They act as certain barriers to be overcome by the migrant, and increase the costs of migration, they resist both the factors of attraction and repulsion.

The methodological approach used by E. Lee, based on the evaluation of the correlation between the indicators of labor immigration and emigration, and other factors characterizing this or that country, was developed in the works of modern sociologists. Along with the traditionally considered factors characterizing the economic and social conditions, the factors were gradually added to the subjective assessments of the new region (for example, assessing the attractiveness of the country by familiar migrants, etc.), social and emotional involvement [6, 302 р]. The decision on migration, as the researcher notes, is individual.It is based on a comparison of a common set of relevant factors at the place of origin (including ejection factors) and destination (including the factors of attraction), and intermediate variables are taken into account.

The proposed model is attractive for a number of reasons.In this model, factors such as migration distance, migration costs and migration risks (especially for illegal migrants) may be the same potential variables in the model as labor demand, wages, unemployment and other economic factors.It shows that the more the difference between the forces of attraction and repulsion in places of origin and destination is perceived, the higher the probability that migration will take place.Moreover, Lee asserts that migrants motivated primarily by attraction factors will tend to be positively selected by age and qualification criteria, whereas those that are driven by expulsion factors will tend to negative selection.However, the reality of this statement is relative in the face of contradictory evidence [7, p.20].

S.Eberg supplemented the theory of E. Lee, introduced the concept of "soft" and "hard" factors of labor migration.In the first group, he included ill-managed factors of an extraordinary nature (armed conflict, humanitarian crisis, natural disasters), secondly - social and economic factors managed at the state level, including social inequality, unemployment and poverty [8, рр. 336-357].

This approach to the study of labor migration seems attractive, allowing to consider the factors influencing the decision on migration, in the aggregate. Critics of the theory of "Pull-Push factors" reduce it to a descriptive model, since, in fact, the theory does not explain the mechanism of action and the mutual influence of factors, but simply states the very fact of the dependence of statistical migration indicators on them. According to opponents, this approach does not take into account social heterogeneity and social stratification in donor countries, practically ignoring the influence of the social component [9, p. 1270-1282].

Theoretical approaches that consider market and labor structures as key variables within the framework of migration processes models provide a deeper understanding of the interrelationship between migration and social inequality. Supporters of the theory of social hierarchy and segmentation of the labor market justify the thesis that labor migration leads to the formation of a certain stratification system in the labor market in which low-skilled labor migrants of certain ethnic groups occupy the lower levels, which leads to the phenomenon of social segregation.

Supporters of this approach are M. Payor [10, 298 p.] And P. Deringer, who view the heterogeneous labor market as a combination of primary and secondary segments and offer the theory of dual labor markets. The primary segment is characterized by favorable working conditions, high wages, stability, strict observance of labor law standards and extensive opportunities for professional self-improvement and advancement. The secondary segment is represented by unfavorable conditions of professional activity, low level of payment, "envelope" wages, high turnover, lack of social benefits and opportunities for career advancement [11, с. 58].

More favorable professions are preferable to the local population, while immigrants remain with relatively unattractive vacancies. This explains the observed migration in developed countries, emphasizes the importance of labor migrants for ensuring the stability of the national economy.

Similar is the division of some researchers of the labor market into "periphery" and "center" according to the criteria of the level of wages and the stability of employment.Occupations of the "center" of the labor market are proposals characterized by a high level of remuneration of labor, employment on a constant basis under long-term employment contracts. "Periphery" is represented by employment under short-term contracts or without formalization of labor relations, characterized by a low level of wages [12, p.36-51].

These theories make it possible to explain the flows of migrants, between not only countries with different levels of material well-being of the population, but also between regions of one country or countries with approximately the same level of welfare, but differ. For example, in guarantees of labor rights, professional self-realization.Within their framework, it is justified why labor migrants in different countries, as a rule, constitute the lower and middle strata in the social structure.

Indicative proximity considered theories of segmentation of the labor market with the provisions of the theory of social inequality proposed by J. Goldthorpe and E. Wright.Scientists suggested differentiating professional groups by criteria of level and source of income, levels of legal guarantees of security and stability, the likelihood of economic success and place in the system of control and power mechanism of labor relations.J. Goldthorpe on the degree of decrease in the importance of professional groups and the growth of social inequality in the structure of society, considered the service, middle and working classes [13, 208 р.]. E Wright developed this theory, presenting the social structure of society as a set of 9 professional groups in terms of the scope of functions of power and coercion: from unskilled workers to highly skilled managers [14, 170 р.]

Within the framework of labor market segmentation theories, observed differences between developed countries with a similar structural organization of the society and the economy, characterized by different migration rates (for example, Norway and Denmark, on the one hand, and Switzerland, and Canada, on the other) are not considered. According to UN statistics, within the framework of the classification of countries in terms of the human development index, within the global vector "South-North", the migration flow accounts for only 37% of the global flow, while the movement of labor between the states of the "South" accounts for as much as 45%. [15]

From the point of view of overcoming social inequality by migrants with representatives of the local population of the host country, generational theories are interesting. Therefore, in the proposed H.G. Duncan's approach indicates that migrants are integrated into the social structure of the host society gradually, from generation to generation. If the first generation of employees pursues primarily the goals of raising the level of economic welfare, then the second generation is characterized by emotional and psychological inclusion: receiving, for example, a traditional education for the host country, they identify themselves as full-fledged citizens. Children migrants adopt the characteristics of the culture of the country of residence, while family education instills in them the values and traditions of the society in which their parents were born. The third generation is ready for complete assimilation with the population of the host country. The ambitions of the descendants of migrants are much higher than the representatives of their first generation: migrants seek to achieve equality with the inhabitants of the host country, fight for their rights, which often leads to providing them with much greater opportunities for self-realization and raising their status in social stratification [16, p. 60].

There are interesting results of a study by J. Winter and M. Teitelbaum, who note the increase in the intensity of the migration flow and the countries of the socialist camp in the 1990 s. in countries of Europe and North America with an unfavorable demographic situation. The destruction of the former social stratification in the former communist countries (when all are relatively equal) stimulated the most initiative workers to search for more favorable conditions for their development and residence. At the same time, the host countries were not ready to provide the most highly paid and attractive professions to migrants, which led to the strengthening of the state policy of national identity in the host states [17, p. 37-39].

In the theory of the mobile transition, first proposed in the works of V. Zelinsky, and developed in the works of J. Taylor and F. Martin, as the society develops, the forms of labor migration are transformed. Within the framework of this methodological approach, development is considered not only in the context of demographic and economic conditions, but also characterized by the development of infrastructure, communications, education - that is, the set of conditions predetermined by the influence of globalization on the desire of people of working age to go to another country.

The influence of such development, according to M.S. Savocul, depends on the time horizon for the study of labor migration.In the short and medium term, the development of the donor country stimulates the intensity of migration flows (for a risk assessment and decision on migration a person needs a certain amount of capital for the first time). However, in a longer period internal migration from rural areas to urban and external outflow of migrants is reduced, the migration flow is diversified, the role of migration inflow gradually increases [18, p. 61].

The study of labor migration on the basis of theories of social inequality appears to be a promising direction in the study of this phenomenon. Taking into account only the economic or demographic factors of migration while ignoring social factors leads to a clear simplification of models of labor migration, which is confirmed by the experience and statistics of modern states. The scale of the movement of labor and its direction is predetermined by the interaction of many factors, including the peculiarities of social stratification and stratification of society, income distribution, access to educational services and attractive professions, and state social and migration policies. Only in combination, these factors contribute to the adoption of decisions by labor migrants.

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